MonkeyOrigin

「 Those who adapt are never trapped by the situation;<br>those who stay curious keep finding something new. 」

People born in the Year of the Monkey are often clever, quick-minded, curious, and creative. Fast to react and good at adapting, they are often humorous and inventive, finding unexpected solutions in flashes of inspiration.

Monkey / Origin

Shen —— The Ninth Earthly Branch

In oracle-bone inscriptions, the character “申” (Shen) has an exceptionally distinctive form. One explanation holds that it resembles a twisting streak of flashing lightning—as though a bolt of lightning were cutting across the sky. Thunder often follows lightning, and the character “神” arose from this association—“申” was the original character of “神.” The seventh lunar month represented by “申” is precisely the season when thunder and lightning gradually subside and the qi of Heaven and Earth begins to contract. After the Beginning of Autumn, “every blade of grass sets seed,” and all things move from luxuriant growth toward maturity.

Xu Shen of the Eastern Han explained the character “申” in the *Shuowen Jiezi* (《说文解字》) as follows: “申，神也。七月，阴气成，体自申束。” This means that “申” is “神,” and represents the seventh lunar month, when Yin qi has already taken form and all things begin to contract and restrain themselves. Li Changqing of the Ming dynasty described it even more vividly in the *Songxiaguan Zhuiyan* (《松霞馆赘言》): “申时，日落而猿啼，且申臂也，譬之气数，将乱则狂作横行，故申属猴。”

More remarkably still, some scholars have pointed out that in oracle-bone inscriptions, “申” itself was depicted as two female monkeys standing face to face. This would mean that the correspondence between “申” and the Monkey can be traced back to the age of Cangjie’s creation of writing—making it one of the few zodiac pairings for which direct philological evidence can be found.

From a philosophical perspective, “申” corresponds to the seventh lunar month, the first month of autumn. At this time, the weather gradually cools and fruits ripen fragrantly; it is also the season when Monkeys are most active, and when their cries are longest and loudest. “申” also corresponds to Shen hour, from 3:00 p.m. to 5:00 p.m.

Monkey —— Evolution of the Character and Philological Extensions

The character “猴” (Monkey) is a phono-semantic compound, formed from “犬” (犭) as its semantic element and “侯” as its phonetic element. The character “猴” appeared relatively late, but the creatures it denotes—Monkeys and apes—were already recorded in oracle-bone inscriptions. “猴” and “侯” are homophones, and this phonetic relationship exerted a profound influence on traditional Chinese culture. “侯” was a high-ranking noble title in ancient China, below only the king and duke. Because “猴” and “侯” are homophonous, the Monkey became a bearer of auspicious meanings such as “封侯拜相” and “马上封侯.” A Monkey riding on a Horse signifies “马上封侯”—to be ennobled and appointed to high office immediately; a Monkey climbing a maple tree and hanging a seal signifies “封侯挂印”; two Monkeys sitting in a pine tree signify “辈辈封侯.” Such auspicious motifs are extremely common in folk New Year paintings, jade carvings, and paintings.

Three Explanations for the Pairing of Shen and the Monkey

The Time-of-Day Theory

Shen hour runs from 3:00 p.m. to 5:00 p.m. and is also called “Bushi.” At this time, the sun begins to sink toward the west, the weather gradually cools, and Monkeys emerge among the trees after eating their fill. The ancients observed that Monkeys especially liked to stretch out their arms, leap, climb, play, and call back and forth during this time. “伸” and “申” are homophonous, while the Monkey’s act of stretching out its arms also accords with the meanings of “stretching” and “extending” contained in “申.” As the sun set over the western hills and apes climbed and cried, the ancients associated Shen hour with the Monkey. Liu Xianting of the Qing dynasty, in the *Guangyang Zaji* (《广阳杂记》), cites Li Changqing’s Ming-dynasty *Songxiaguan Zhuiyan* (《松霞馆赘言》): “申时，日落而猿啼，且申臂也，譬之气数，将乱则狂作横行，故申属猴。”

The Odd-Even Toe Theory

According to ancient Chinese Yin-Yang concepts, animals were arranged according to whether the number of their toes was odd or even. The Monkey has five toes—an odd number and therefore Yang. Within the alternating sequence of odd- and even-toed animals among the twelve zodiac creatures, the Monkey occupies the ninth position. Nine is the ultimate Yang number and symbolizes enduring longevity. The ninth position corresponds to the earthly branch “申,” hence the name “Shen-Monkey.”

Philological Origins

The most striking evidence comes from philology: in oracle-bone inscriptions, “申” is itself a pictograph of two female Monkeys standing face to face. From this perspective, the earliest form of the character “申” was itself a pictograph of the Monkey. This suggests that at the very beginning of writing, the early peoples had already closely linked “申” with the Monkey—a correspondence far older than the formation of the twelve-animal zodiac system.

Records in Classical Texts

The Qin Bamboo-Slip Rishu

In 1975, the *Daozhe* section of the bamboo-slip *Rishu* (《日书·盗者》), excavated from Qin Tomb No. 11 at Shuihudi in Yunmeng County, Hubei, recorded pairings related to the twelve zodiac animals. The tomb is dated to the era of Qin Shi Huang, in the third century BCE. In Type A of the Qin bamboo-slip *Rishu* unearthed at Fangmatan in Tianshui, Gansu, the animal paired with “申” is recorded as “环”—“环” being interchangeable with “猿,” meaning an ape or Monkey. In the Fangmatan Qin slips, the twelve zodiac animals are recorded as: Zi-Rat, Chou-Ox, Yin-Tiger, Mao-Rabbit, Chen-Insect, Si-Snake, Wu-Horse, Wei-Goat, Shen-Monkey, You-Rooster, Xu-Dog, and Hai-Pig. This shows that from the late Warring States period into the Qin dynasty, the pairing of “申” with the Monkey or ape had already been basically established. The Han bamboo-slip *Rishu* from Kongjiapo in Suizhou, Hubei, likewise pairs “申” with the Monkey. Together, these discoveries demonstrate that by at least the late Warring States period in the third century BCE, the pairing of “Shen-Monkey” was already circulating in different regions of China.

The Monkey in Texts from the Pre-Qin through Han and Tang Periods

The pre-Qin classic *Zhuangzi · Xuwugui* (《庄子·徐无鬼》) records the story of “the King of Wu shooting the skillful ape.” The King of Wu climbed a Monkey mountain; all the Monkeys fled in alarm except for one ape, which continued to climb and leap calmly, displaying extraordinary skill, and was ultimately shot dead by the King. Zhuangzi used the allegory to satirize those who rely arrogantly on their talents. It is one of the most vivid images of a Monkey in pre-Qin literature.

The Western Han *Huainanzi · Shuolinxun* (《淮南子·说林训》) contains the passage “猿狖之所捷，若夫猿狖之捷，搏攫腾跃，非不捷也”, praising the agility and dexterity of apes and Monkeys.

The Eastern Han physician Hua Tuo created the “Five-Animal Exercises”, imitating the movements of the Tiger, Deer, Bear, Ape, and Bird to strengthen the body. The “Ape Exercise” specifically imitates Monkey movements as a form of physical cultivation, showing that as early as the Eastern Han period people had already recognized the health benefits of the Monkey’s agile movements.

The Tang poet Li Bai wrote the immortal lines: “两岸猿声啼不住，轻舟已过万重山”. The cries of apes merged with the poet’s heroic spirit, becoming one of the most celebrated images in Tang poetry.

The Eastern Han Lunheng

The earliest transmitted text to record the same twelve zodiac animals as those used today is Wang Chong’s Eastern Han *Lunheng* (《论衡》). Wang Chong writes explicitly in the *Lunheng · Wushi Pian* (《论衡·物势篇》): “申，猴也。” He also writes: “巳，虵也。申，猴也。” Wang Chong records all twelve animals in the *Lunheng*, and the pairing of “申” and the Monkey is already completely identical to the modern system. This shows that by the Eastern Han period, in the first century CE, the Monkey’s position within the twelve-animal zodiac had become fully fixed.

Zodiac Figurines and Monkey-Shaped Artifacts

The Tradition of Zodiac Figurines from the Northern Wei to the Tang Dynasty

The twelve zodiac figurines, also known as divine figurines of the Twelve Branches, were distinctive burial objects in ancient Chinese funerary culture. Large numbers of pottery zodiac figurines with animal heads and human bodies have been unearthed from Tang tombs. Among them, the Shen-Monkey figurine has a Monkey’s head and human body and wears the attire of a civil official. These zodiac figurines followed a fixed order in tombs. Three were placed in each of the eastern, southern, western, and northern sectors of the tomb chamber, beginning with the Rat and ending with the Pig, arranged clockwise according to the orientation Zi south, Wu north. Monkey figurines were usually placed in the direction representing southwest by west, corresponding to Shen among the twelve earthly branches. As tomb-guardian figurines, the zodiac statues were intended to protect the tomb occupant from ghosts and spirits, reflecting the ancient Chinese funerary ideal of “serving the dead as one serves the living.”

Sui-Dynasty Celadon Monkey Figurine

Unearthed in 1955 at Guizishan in Wuchang, Wuhan, Hubei. The Monkey figurine stands 16.5 centimeters high. It has a human body and animal head, wears clothing, holds a ceremonial tablet, and sits cross-legged. Its likeness is vivid, the glaze is greenish yellow, and the craftsmanship is refined.

Tang-Dynasty Painted Pottery Zodiac Figurines

Painted pottery zodiac figurines from the Tang tomb of Sun Chengsi in the southern suburbs of Xi’an range from 21.5 to 25.8 centimeters in height. Each has an animal head and human body, with the twelve heads corresponding respectively to the twelve zodiac animals. Their bodies are human in form, clothed in open-collared, wide-sleeved robes whose hems fall to the feet, and their hands are clasped before the chest. The Shen-Monkey figurine has wide, spirited eyes, a tightly closed mouth, and ears turned to the sides, conveying the mischievous vitality of a Monkey.

Stone Zodiac Monkey Figurine from Tang Jianling

In 1974, two stone zodiac figurines with animal heads and human bodies were unearthed outside the inner-city gate of Jianling, the mausoleum of Tang Emperor Suzong Li Heng, in Liquan County, Shaanxi. The Monkey-headed, human-bodied zodiac figurine has an overall height of 42.2 centimeters, with a stone base 5.6 centimeters high. Its eyes are wide open, its mouth closed, its ears lie close against the sides of its head, and its gaze is level; the carving throughout is finely executed. This is the only known instance in which stone zodiac figurines have been discovered outside the inner gate of a Tang imperial mausoleum, giving it extremely high academic value. It is now housed in the Zhaoling Museum.

Tang-Dynasty Painted Red-Pottery Human-Form Monkey Figurine

Unearthed in 1964 from Wangjiafen in Baqiao, it stands approximately 31 centimeters high. The Monkey figurine wears a close-fitting long robe in the *Caoyi* style and holds its hands respectfully before the body. Its expression is dignified and solemn, and its eyes are bright and spirited. Traditional sculptural methods were retained in its production, giving the figure a natural, unforced form. Only through long and careful observation of the forms of different animals, combined with masterful sculptural technique, could Tang craftsmen have rendered the Monkey’s characteristics so vividly.

Neolithic Period —— The Earliest Monkey Images

Animal ornaments depicting apes or Monkeys have been unearthed from the Shangzhai site in Beijing, approximately 7,000 years ago; the Houwa site in Liaoning, approximately 6,000 years ago; and the Shijiahe site in Hubei, approximately 5,000–4,000 years ago. These Neolithic ape and Monkey ornaments show that as early as five or six thousand years ago, Monkeys had already entered the spiritual world and artistic creation of the early peoples.

Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing —— Diversification of Monkey Imagery

Jade craftsmanship flourished in the Song dynasty, and large numbers of Monkey-shaped jade carvings appeared, many associated with the auspicious meaning of “being enfeoffed as a marquis.” The Shaanxi History Museum houses a Ming-dynasty jade carving titled “马上封侯”, depicting a Monkey riding a Horse. Ming- and Qing-dynasty ceramics likewise featured large numbers of Monkey-shaped sculptures and Monkey motifs, rich in subject matter and diverse in form.

Cultural Meanings of Monkey Artifacts

In ancient Chinese artifacts and works of art, the image of the Monkey underwent a rich evolution—from totem to auspicious beast, from zodiac deity to auspicious symbol. The Monkey was deeply loved not only because of its intelligence and endearing nature, but even more importantly because “猴” and “侯” are homophones. “封侯拜相” represented the highest lifelong aspiration of ancient Chinese scholars. Thus, a Monkey riding on a Horse signifies “马上封侯”; a Monkey climbing a maple tree and hanging a seal signifies “封侯挂印”; and two Monkeys sitting in a pine tree signify “辈辈封侯.” These auspicious motifs circulated widely among the people and became an important part of Monkey culture.

Origins and Distribution of the Monkey

Monkeys belong to the class Mammalia, order Primates, and family Cercopithecidae. China is one of the countries in the world with the greatest diversity of primate species, including macaques, golden snub-nosed Monkeys, gibbons, and many other kinds of apes and Monkeys. On the land of China, apes and Monkeys appeared and multiplied far earlier than humans. From the perspective of zoological classification, Monkeys are highly social animals that prefer to live in groups and share many similarities with humans. Their intelligence, endearing appearance, and dexterity have long made them deeply loved by people.

Monkeys at Prehistoric Sites

Monkey Totems and Primitive Worship

Guo Moruo once argued, based on the mythological figure Emperor Ku as a Monkey animal deity, that the Monkey may once have been regarded as a primitive totem. Guo further held that the Monkey may originally have been the totem of the Yin people, who regarded their tribal “High Ancestor” as a Monkey. This argument carries important academic significance. If the Yin-Shang tribes indeed took the Monkey as their totem, then the Monkey’s place in Chinese culture would be far older and more exalted than we might imagine. The Yin people’s linking of their tribal origins with the Monkey suggests that the animal held a sacred position in the minds of Shang-period peoples.

Tibetan macaque worship: In Tibetan creation mythology, the Monkey is regarded as an ancestor of the Tibetan people. Tibetan mythology tells of a compassionate old Monkey father, Pha Trelgen Changchup Sempa, regarded as the Monkey-god ancestor of the Tibetans. There are many versions of this myth. In the most widely accepted version, this Monkey-god ancestor came to Tibet when the world had been submerged by floodwaters and united with a rakshasa woman, producing young Monkeys. These young Monkeys eventually learned to use tools and gradually became human beings. Numerous Tibetan historical texts, including the *Pillar Testament*, *Feast of the Wise*, and *Turquoise Garland*, contain accounts and legends in which humanity originates from apes or Monkeys. Tibetan tradition holds that the offspring of the macaque father and rakshasa mother evolved into the four divisions of Sai, Mu, Dong, and Tong, from which the Tibetan people developed. Avalokiteshvara instructed his macaque disciple to go to snowy Tibet for spiritual cultivation. In order to transform Tibet, the macaque united with a local demoness and produced young Monkeys. The old Monkey sent them into fruit forests to forage and live independently. When the fruit on the trees was no longer enough to feed the growing number of Monkeys, the old macaque, following divine instruction, scattered the seeds of the Five Grains across the earth. After eating the Five Grains, the Monkeys’ tails gradually shortened, they learned to speak, and they slowly became human beings—the earliest inhabitants of the snowy plateau.

This myth bears a striking resemblance to Darwin’s theory of evolution—the macaque cultivates spiritually, unites with a demoness, produces descendants, and those descendants eat the Five Grains and become human. It can be called one of the legends of human origins most strongly supportive of Darwin. Tibetan macaque worship is an important branch of Monkey culture on the land of China.

Among the legends surrounding the Shen-Monkey, the richness of their number and the depth of their influence rank among the foremost of all twelve zodiac animals. From the proverbial origin of “山中无老虎，猴子称大王” to the immortal image of the Great Sage Equal to Heaven in *Journey to the West*, the Monkey’s mythological image spans many domains of folk legend and literary classic.

Creation and Heroic Narratives

Divine Monkeys in the Shanhaijing

The *Shanhaijing* (《山海经》), one of China’s earliest collections of mythology, records several supernatural ape- and Monkey-like beings, reflecting the reverence early peoples held for Monkeys.

Zhuyan: The *Shanhaijing · Xishanjing* (《山海经·西山经》) records: “有兽焉，其状如猿，而白首赤足，名曰朱厌，见则天下大兵。” Zhuyan is a beast shaped like an ape, with a white head and red feet. Whenever this creature appears, large-scale warfare will break out under Heaven. Zhuyan is one of the most famous Monkey-shaped malevolent beasts in the *Shanhaijing* and was regarded as an omen of war and military disaster.

Changyou: The *Shanhaijing · Nanshanjing* (《山海经·南山经》) records: “长右之山，无草木，多水，有兽焉，其状如禺而四耳，其名长右，其音如吟。见则郡县大水。” Changyou is a strange beast shaped like an ape but possessing four ears. Its cry resembles human groaning. Whenever Changyou appears in a commandery or county, a major flood will occur there. Some scholars believe that Changyou resembles the Six-Eared Macaque of *Journey to the West*—both are able to “hear in all directions.”

Xingxing: The *Shanhaijing* records a beast called “狌狌”, shaped like a wildcat and possessing a white tail. According to legend, keeping one nearby could cure sorrow.

Jufu and Guoran: The *Shanhaijing* also records “举父”, an ape-like animal skilled at throwing objects, and “果然”, a spirit beast resembling a macaque, with dark gray fur, orderly group behavior, and a habit of giving food to the elderly first.

These divine Monkey images show that by the pre-Qin period, Monkeys had already been endowed with supernatural divinity. They were not merely animals of the mortal world, but spiritual beings between Heaven and humanity.

The White Ape

In ancient Chinese folk tales, the White Ape is an important mythological image. Ancient texts also record it as “白猿” or “白蝯.” In folk stories, the White Ape is portrayed as a supernatural creature that has acquired spiritual powers, excels at climbing, and delights in brewing wine. It often possesses superhuman wisdom and magical abilities, at times serving as an immortal’s mount and at other times appearing as a bandit spirit or supernatural monster. The image of the White Ape enriched the diversity of Monkey imagery in Chinese mythology—from spirit beast to supernatural creature, from immortal being to demon.

Legends of Zodiac Ranking

The Monkey Rescues the Tiger

This is the classic legend explaining how the Monkey entered the twelve-animal zodiac. It is the most widely circulated version and features the most vivid and intricate plot.

The Tiger King Dominates —— The Lonely King of Beasts

According to legend, long ago the Tiger became king of all beasts because of its reputation for guarding the mountains and governing the animals. At that time, every animal in the mountains feared the Tiger and avoided it from afar. Though proud and imposing, the Tiger also felt deeply lonely. The higher the position, the colder it becomes—it had become king, yet had no friend with whom it could speak. At that time, the Monkey and the Tiger were neighbors. Unlike the other animals, which fled whenever they saw the Tiger, the Monkey was not afraid of it. It actively befriended the Tiger, and the two became as close as brothers. Clever, quick-witted, and eloquent, the Monkey often made the Tiger laugh heartily. The Tiger also looked after this neighbor, and over time the Monkey almost became its most capable assistant. Whenever the Tiger King went out to patrol the mountains, the Monkey would act in its place and issue commands. Awed by the Tiger King’s authority, the other beasts had no choice but to obey the Monkey. This is said to be the origin of the proverb “山中无老虎，猴子称大王.”

The Tiger King Falls into Danger —— The Monkey Comes to the Rescue

One day, the Tiger King was patrolling the mountains as usual when it accidentally fell into a hunter’s net. No matter how desperately it struggled, it could not escape. The Tiger King roared anxiously and cried desperately for help. At that very moment, the Monkey happened to be playing in a large tree nearby and heard the Tiger’s calls. The Monkey immediately stretched out its long arms, swung several times between the trees, and soon saw the trapped Tiger. Seeing what had happened, the Monkey quickly climbed the tree and used its nimble fingers to untie the hunter’s net, rescuing the Tiger King.

The Tiger King’s Thoughts —— Gratitude, Shame, and Murderous Intent

After escaping danger, the Tiger repeatedly thanked the Monkey aloud. Yet inwardly it kept thinking: I am the king of all beasts, yet today I fell into a hunter’s trap and had to rely on a tiny Monkey to rescue me. If word of this spreads, would it not destroy the Tiger King’s prestige? A thought even flashed through the Tiger’s mind: perhaps it would be better to kill the Monkey now, so that no one would ever know what had happened. But then it reconsidered. Although it was king of all beasts, it did not have a single true friend. If it killed the Monkey, it would have no friend at all. If it ever encountered another danger like today’s, who would help it then? Besides, the Monkey had always feared it, so surely it would not dare tell anyone about what had happened. After an inner struggle, the Tiger abandoned the idea of killing the Monkey. It solemnly told the Monkey that it would certainly repay the life-saving debt one day and that if the Monkey ever encountered difficulty, it would do everything in its power to help. The Monkey, naturally understanding the situation, never mentioned the Tiger King’s misfortune and thus preserved its dignity.

The Jade Emperor Selects the Zodiac —— The Tiger King Recommends the Monkey

Many years later, the Jade Emperor began selecting the twelve zodiac deities. As king of all beasts, the Tiger naturally became one of them. When the Monkey saw that its elder brother Tiger had entered the zodiac ranking, it too became interested—it also wanted to become a zodiac animal. But the Jade Emperor had one principle for selecting the zodiac: each animal had to have rendered service to humanity. The Monkey spent its days playing in the mountains and had no merit toward humans, so naturally it could not be chosen. It therefore went to the Tiger King for help and asked the Tiger to plead its case before the Jade Emperor. Because the Tiger owed the Monkey a great life-saving debt, it had no choice but to exert itself fully in lobbying on the Monkey’s behalf. The Tiger told the Jade Emperor that the Monkey was clever and intelligent, extraordinarily agile, and the foremost among the beasts; when the Tiger went out to patrol the mountains, the Monkey also performed the duty of guarding them. If the Monkey were selected as a zodiac animal, it would certainly prove capable. After hearing the Tiger’s recommendation, the Jade Emperor agreed that the Monkey was indeed intelligent, quick-witted, and highly capable, and therefore issued an order admitting it into the twelve-animal zodiac.

The Tiger King Becomes Displeased —— The Friendship Breaks Apart

Yet after the Monkey was selected for the zodiac, the Tiger King became somewhat unhappy. It thought: the Monkey’s abilities are ordinary; it was only because it once saved my life that it managed to stand beside me among the twelve zodiac animals. From that time onward, the friendship between the Tiger and the Monkey gradually grew distant and eventually broke apart. The proverb “山中无老虎，猴子称大王” also changed over time from an originally neutral description into a saying with satirical meaning—mocking mediocre people who seize the opportunity to become dominant when no truly capable person is present.

Folk Beliefs and Folk Customs

Bimawen

In folk legend and custom, the Monkey has a peculiar association with the Horse: Monkeys can ward off horse epidemics. Ancient books record that Horse keepers who kept a Monkey in the stable could prevent the herd from falling ill. In olden times, traveling merchants on the southwestern plateaus of China also often brought a Monkey with them when driving packhorse caravans over long distances. It was said that Monkeys were highly sensitive to diseases in mules and Horses and could often help people identify sick animals, thereby preventing epidemics from spreading. Before staying at an inn, the Monkey would first be allowed to sniff around; only if there was no epidemic would the Horses be settled there.

This gave rise to the folk belief that Monkeys could “避马瘟”. In Shaanxi and other regions, a woodblock folk print titled 《庇（弼）马瘟（温）》 has also been discovered. It depicts a Monkey holding a large red peach, with a smaller Monkey crouched on its shoulder. In *Journey to the West*, the Jade Emperor appoints Sun Wukong “弼马温”, placing him in charge of the celestial Horses. The name of this office is a pun on “避马瘟”—having Sun Wukong manage the heavenly Horses could be said to be a perfect professional match. Unfortunately, Sun Wukong considered the position far too minor and, in fury, created havoc in Heaven.

The custom of Monkeys being able to “ward off horse epidemics” also became intertwined with the auspicious meaning of “马上封侯.” A Monkey riding a Horse signifies both “马上封侯”—immediate ennoblement—and the folk belief that “a Monkey in the stable wards off horse epidemics.” The image thus carries two meanings at once.

Stone Monkeys for Tethering Children and Monkey-Deity Worship

In Chinese folk culture, Monkeys were regarded as auspicious creatures. Many beliefs and customs developed around them.

Stone Monkeys for tethering children: In farm households in Shanxi, Shaanxi, Inner Mongolia, and other regions, a small Monkey carved from bluestone could often be found on the heated kang platform, specifically used to tether infants of six or seven months who were just learning to crawl. The mother would tie one end of a red cord through a circular hole in the stone Monkey’s leg and fasten the other around the child’s waist. It was said that the Monkey could protect the child and that the child would grow up clever and capable.

Stone Monkeys atop Horse-tethering posts: In Gansu, Shanxi, and other regions, many Horse-tethering posts have stone Monkeys carved at their tops. This relates both to the folk belief in “warding off horse epidemics” and to people’s wish for safety.

Stone Monkeys at ferry crossings: Before the 1970s, at old ferry crossings around Sanmenxia and Shanxian, a spirited Monkey was carved on the wooden post to which boats were tied when they came ashore. Old boatmen explained that Sun Wukong was an excellent swimmer who could dive into the Eastern Sea and wreak havoc in the Dragon Palace; honoring him could therefore protect boats and passengers and ensure safe passage.

These customs show that in the everyday lives of Chinese people, the Monkey was not merely an animal but also a cultural symbol entrusted with wishes for safety, health, wealth, and status.

The Monkey in Literature and Historical Records

Sun Wukong in Journey to the West

Among all myths and literary works related to Monkeys, Sun Wukong in *Journey to the West* is undoubtedly the greatest Monkey image of all.

Sun Wukong was originally an immortal stone on the Mountain of Flowers and Fruit. Nourished by the essence of Heaven and Earth and the vital forces of the sun and moon over a long period, it gradually acquired spiritual intelligence. Within it an immortal embryo formed, and one day the stone split open, giving birth to a Stone Monkey. This Monkey courageously entered the Water Curtain Cave and was acclaimed by the other Monkeys as the “Handsome Monkey King.” It traveled tens of thousands of li and crossed the seas to Mount Lingtai Fangcun, where it became a disciple of Patriarch Bodhi and learned supernatural abilities including the Seventy-Two Transformations and the Somersault Cloud. After completing its studies and returning, Sun Wukong first went to the Dragon Palace and obtained the Golden-Hooped Staff, then entered the underworld and struck its name from the Register of Life and Death. The Jade Emperor attempted to recruit it into Heaven and appointed it “Bimawen.” When Sun Wukong discovered that the office was merely an insignificant Horse-keeping post of no official rank, it became furious, rebelled against Heaven, and proclaimed itself “Great Sage Equal to Heaven.” The Jade Emperor sent celestial troops and generals to capture it, but Sun Wukong created havoc in Heaven, defeating one hundred thousand celestial soldiers and leaving them in disarray. Ultimately the Buddha Tathagata intervened and imprisoned Sun Wukong beneath the Five-Elements Mountain for five hundred years.

Five hundred years later, Tang Monk passed by the Five-Elements Mountain on his journey westward to obtain the scriptures, removed the seal, and accepted Sun Wukong as his disciple. From then onward, Sun Wukong protected Tang Monk on the journey west, endured the eighty-one ordeals, subdued demons and monsters, and remained utterly loyal. When the quest for the scriptures was finally completed, the Buddha Tathagata conferred upon Sun Wukong the title “Victorious Fighting Buddha.”

The spirit represented by Sun Wukong—cutting through every obstacle and pressing fearlessly forward—has become part of the spirit of the Chinese nation. Though born of humble origins, merely a Stone Monkey, it carved out a place in the world through unceasing effort. Mao Zedong once praised it in verse: “金猴奋起千钧棒，玉宇澄清万里埃”. Sun Wukong is the greatest Monkey figure in the history of Chinese literature and the most brilliant jewel in Shen-Monkey culture.

The Monkey in the Zhuangzi

The pre-Qin classic *Zhuangzi · Xuwugui* (《庄子·徐无鬼》) records the story of “the King of Wu shooting the skillful ape.” The King of Wu climbed a Monkey mountain; all the Monkeys fled in alarm except one ape, which climbed and leapt calmly with extraordinary skill, only to be shot dead by the King. Zhuangzi used this allegory to satirize those who rely arrogantly on their talents. It is one of the most vivid Monkey images in pre-Qin literature.

As zodiac culture spread, it incorporated elements of local cultures, and the image of the Monkey took on different forms across East Asia.

Japan

Japan’s twelve zodiac animals are basically the same as China’s—Rat, Ox, Tiger, Rabbit, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Wild Boar. The Monkey likewise occupies ninth place. One view holds that Japan’s twelve-animal zodiac replaced the Monkey with the ape. However, in the Japanese zodiac system, the Monkey (サル) still occupies the ninth position, the same as in China. In Japanese culture, the Monkey is regarded as a spiritual being. Japan’s famous “Three Wise Monkeys of Nikkō”—see no evil, hear no evil, speak no evil—are among the most famous Monkey images in the world.

Vietnam

In Vietnam’s twelve-animal zodiac, the Monkey likewise occupies ninth place. Vietnam’s zodiac system is basically the same as China’s—the only difference is that the Cat replaces the Rabbit. Apart from this, the order of Rat, Ox, Tiger, Dragon, Snake, Horse, Goat, Monkey, Rooster, Dog, and Pig is exactly the same as in China.

Korean Peninsula

The twelve zodiac animals of the Korean Peninsula—North Korea and South Korea—are exactly the same as those of China. In Korean culture, the Monkey is regarded as a symbol of intelligence and alertness.

Myanmar

In Myanmar’s zodiac system, the Monkey is replaced by the Lion. This is a typical example of localized variation occurring as zodiac culture spread.

Commonalities and Differences

The Monkey occupies ninth place in most East Asian zodiac systems, and this shared ranking reflects the widespread importance attached to the Monkey throughout the East Asian cultural sphere. Yet differences exist in the details: China emphasizes the Monkey’s wit and agility, the auspicious homophonic association with “侯”, and the heroic image of Sun Wukong in *Journey to the West*; Japan highlights the Monkey’s spiritual character and cultural symbolism; Vietnam and the Korean Peninsula largely continue Chinese traditions of Monkey culture; Myanmar replaces the Monkey with the Lion, reflecting local cultural choice. These differences precisely demonstrate the vitality and adaptability of zodiac culture in cross-cultural transmission.

Viewed across the origins and evolution of the Shen-Monkey zodiac, one theme emerges throughout: among all twelve zodiac animals, the Monkey is the animal most closely related to humans by kinship and also the richest in spiritual intelligence and wisdom—it is at once the philological source of the character “申,” the auspicious cultural homophone of the noble title “侯,” and the mythological embodiment of “神.”

Characters and texts tell us that because Monkeys climb and call during Shen hour, and because their five toes belong to Yang, they form a dual correspondence in behavior and rhythm with the meanings of “extension” and “contraction” contained in the earthly branch “申.” More astonishing still, “申” itself appears in oracle-bone inscriptions as a pictograph of two female Monkeys standing face to face. This means that the correspondence between “Shen” and the Monkey existed long before the formation of the twelve-animal zodiac system and constitutes one of the oldest forms of philological evidence among zodiac pairings. From the Qin bamboo-slip *Rishu* record of “申环” to the Eastern Han *Lunheng*’s explicit statement “申，猴也,” the pairing of Shen and the Monkey remained stable throughout more than two millennia.

Archaeology reveals an even deeper spiritual connection between the Monkey and the early peoples of China. From Shangzhai in Beijing and Houwa in Liaoning to Shijiahe in Hubei, Neolithic Monkey-shaped ornaments span thousands of years and stretch across northern and southern China, showing that Monkeys had already entered the spiritual world of early peoples at the very dawn of civilization. Guo Moruo argued that the Yin people regarded the Monkey as their “High Ancestor” totem, while Tibetan creation mythology takes the macaque as the ancestor of humanity. The sacred position of the Monkey in Chinese culture is therefore far older and more exalted than we might imagine.

What truly gives the Shen-Monkey its soul is the vast world of myths and legends. In these narratives born among the people, the Monkey is the supernatural beast of the *Shanhaijing*—Zhuyan, Changyou, and others—that foretells fortune and disaster; it is the quick-witted benefactor who entered the zodiac after rescuing the Tiger King; it is the Great Sage Equal to Heaven of *Journey to the West*, “金猴奋起千钧棒”; it is the auspicious symbol of “马上封侯” and “辈辈封侯”; and it is also the folk guardian embodied in stone Monkeys used to tether children and stone Monkeys at ferry crossings, protecting ordinary people and keeping them safe. The Monkey’s image moves from divine altar to human world, from supernatural creature to hero, and from totem to auspicious emblem. This rich range of identities spanning myth and secular life makes the Monkey one of the most culturally diverse members of the twelve-animal zodiac.

When the Monkey zodiac traveled beyond the Central Plains to Japan, Vietnam, and the Korean Peninsula, it retained its honored ninth-place position in different cultures—Japan developed the spiritual symbolism of the “Three Wise Monkeys of Nikkō,” while Vietnam and the Korean Peninsula continued Chinese auspicious associations, and Myanmar replaced the Monkey with the Lion. This perhaps suggests that the vitality of a cultural symbol lies not in whether it is reproduced without alteration, but in whether it possesses sufficient inclusiveness and symbolic power to allow every culture that receives it to find its own voice within it. The Shen-Monkey is precisely such a symbol. It comes leaping from the forests of remote antiquity, clothed in flashes of lightning and carrying an immortal peach in its mouth, leaving on the spiritual map of Chinese civilization its most quick-witted and most agile figure.

---