HorseFolklore

The twenty-third day of the sixth lunar month is the “Lord Ma Festival” (马王节), also known as the “Birthday of the Horse God” (马神诞), and is the most important popular occasion for worshipping Lord Ma.

Origins of the Festival

According to tradition, the twenty-third day of the sixth lunar month is Lord Ma’s birthday. On this day, households that kept horses, cart drivers, horse-trading businesses, government offices, and military camps all set up altars to worship Lord Ma, praying that mules and horses would remain strong, reproduce successfully, and that business would prosper.

Sacrificial Rituals

Worship of Lord Ma followed a complete ritual sequence:

Obtaining the deity print: households that raised mules and horses first obtained a deity print of “Lord Ma”, a woodblock image generally available from shops selling ritual paper.

Setting the offering table: the paper image of Lord Ma was placed on an altar table, before which were arranged ritual money and paper offerings, candles, an incense burner, fruit, chicken, fish, a sheep’s head, and other offerings. Among them, a small bowl of clear water and a small measure of fodder were indispensable, expressing the household’s sincerity in carefully feeding its mules and horses.

Offering a whole sheep: the formal sacrificial offering was an entire sheep. Because the prototype of Lord Ma, Jin Midi, was originally from the Western Regions, and because from the Ming and Qing periods onward ordinary people commonly regarded people from the Western Regions as Hui, the Horse God came to be regarded as Hui as well; thus sheep rather than pork was offered. The paper image bore the inscription “Divine Seat of the Luminous Horse King of Water and Grass” (水草马明王神位).

In Beijing, offerings to Lord Ma generally included an entire sheep. His image was usually enshrined in stables and was sometimes also found at relay stations. Cart drivers also used the occasion of worshipping Lord Ma as an opportunity to solicit money from passersby.

Regional Variations

In northern Shaanxi, almost every village temple enshrined Lord Ma. He was depicted with four arms and three eyes, a red face, and a fierce expression. In popular belief, Lord Ma had authority over the six domestic animals, and sacrificing to him was intended to secure flourishing livestock and abundant harvests.

China has observed rituals dedicated to horse deities since ancient times, a tradition that can be traced back to the Zhou dynasty. The Zhouli records an established system of Four Seasonal Sacrifices to the Horse:

Spring sacrifice to Mazu (马祖), identified with Tiansi: to pray for thriving herds. Spring is the season when all things begin to grow and is therefore the appropriate time to worship Mazu.

Summer sacrifice to Xianmu (先牧), deity of herding: to pray for the successful reproduction of horses. The summer sacrifice to Xianmu was in practice also a form of recompense and reward for those who had labored throughout the year in the raising and management of horses and vehicles.

Autumn sacrifice to Mashe (马社), a land deity: to express gratitude for the techniques of horse domestication. Mashe refers to the stable and to the earth deity within it; autumn was regarded as the best season for horses to rest and reproduce.

Winter sacrifice to Mabu (马步), a deity associated with calamity: to ward off disaster and disease from horses. “Mabu” refers to the horse’s legs and hooves, crucial parts of its body, and winter was regarded as the best season for training horses.

During the Sui and Tang dynasties, horse deities were worshipped in all four seasons, while in the Song dynasty, rites to Mazu and other horse gods were categorized as minor sacrifices. In the Ming dynasty, horse raising shifted from official pastures to the system of “registered households raising horses”, under which families were assigned horses and became known as “horse households” (马户). Popular worship of horse gods consequently flourished, and horse-god temples spread widely. By the Qing dynasty, the twenty-third day of the sixth lunar month had been formally designated as the day for worshipping the Horse God.

In traditional Chinese folk culture, the first through sixth days of the first lunar month were respectively associated with the Chicken, Dog, Goat, Pig, Ox, and Horse. According to the myth, Nüwa created the six domestic animals over six days and created humankind only on the seventh. The Book of Divination (《占书》) records: “正月一日为鸡，二日为狗，三日为羊，四日为猪，五日为牛，六日为马，七日为人。”

The sixth day of the first lunar month is therefore “Horse Day” (马日). On this day, killing horses was forbidden, as was using horses for labor, as an expression of respect. The weather on Horse Day was also used to divine the fortunes of horses for the coming year: clear skies on the sixth day foretold strong, healthy horses free from disease and disaster; rain or overcast weather suggested that horses might fall ill or encounter misfortune.

Beginning of Spring (立春) is the first of the Twenty-Four Solar Terms. During the “Whipping the Spring Ox” ritual performed at this time, some regions also held activities centered on the Spring-Welcoming Horse. Around the Beginning of Spring, some places observed the custom of “sending the Spring Horse” (送春马)—fashioning the image of a horse from paper or cloth and delivering it from house to house, conveying the wishes “success upon the horse’s arrival” and “spring returns to the earth.”

A northern Shaanxi agricultural proverb says: “In Goat and Horse years, sow the fields widely.” In farmers’ experience, Goat and Horse years were often seasons of favorable weather and good harvests, when whatever was planted would grow well. Another proverb similarly says: “Goat and Horse years are good years for farming.”

In traditional folk culture, Wu days (午日)—Horse days—carry special significance. In some regions, every Wu day may be marked by rituals and prayers related to horses. Because “Wu” is bound to the Horse in the zodiacal system, the Wu day is regarded as the horse’s “birth-sign day.” The Shijing: Xiaoya: Jiri contains the line “吉日庚午，既差我马”—the Gengwu day was auspicious, and fine horses were selected in preparation for the hunt. The pre-Qin text Mu Tianzi Zhuan (《穆天子传》) likewise records the phrase “吉日戊午”.

Tiansi (天驷星): the ancients believed that there was a celestial mansion representing the horse, known as Tiansi. “Tiansi” refers to the Fang Mansion, one of the Twenty-Eight Mansions. “Fang is the Dragon-Horse, the place from which horses are born.” The Mazu worshipped in spring was precisely Tiansi.

Xianmu (先牧): “Xianmu” was the deity believed to have first domesticated wild horses and taught people how to herd them. Sacrifices to Xianmu were made in summer to pray for the successful reproduction of horse herds.

Mashe (马社): “Mashe” was the land deity of the stable. Autumn sacrifices to Mashe expressed gratitude both for the nourishing earth and for the horse-handling skills developed by earlier generations.

Mabu (马步): “Mabu” was a calamity deity believed to govern diseases of horses. Winter sacrifices to Mabu were intended to dispel disaster and illness from the animals.

Names of Lord Ma

The Horse God is popularly known as “Horse King” (马王), “Lord Ma” (马王爷), “Luminous Horse King” (马明王), and “Luminous Horse King of Water and Grass” (水草马明王). Because horses played such an essential role in transportation, warfare, and agriculture, worship of a Horse God arose very early in Chinese popular religion.

Image of Lord Ma

Lord Ma has an exceptionally distinctive appearance: three eyes and four hands, holding weapons such as blades, spears, swords, and halberds, with a fierce and commanding countenance. The popular saying “Lord Ma has three eyes” derives from this image. In northern Shaanxi, Lord Ma is portrayed with four arms and three eyes, a red face, and a ferocious expression. Images are broadly similar across regions and are usually inscribed “Horse King” or “Luminous Horse King of Water and Grass.” In some places, Lord Ma and the Ox King are depicted seated together, with horses painted beneath them.

In Daoism, Lord Ma is known as Marshal Ma, the Numinous Officer (灵官马元帅). He is portrayed with a red face, curling beard, four arms, and three eyes, dressed in armor and holding a blade and halberd, his expression fierce and formidable.

Prototype of Lord Ma

Popular tradition identifies the prototype of Lord Ma as Jin Midi (金日磾), who was in charge of the imperial stables during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han. Jin Midi was originally a Xiongnu prince and was highly skilled in horse husbandry, making major contributions to the flourishing of horse breeding under the Han. After his death, he was revered by the people as the Horse King. Another tradition similarly identifies the Horse King as Jin Ridi (金日䃅), a celebrated horse keeper of the Western Han.

Functions of Lord Ma

Lord Ma is regarded as the deity governing all affairs relating to horses. In the popular imagination, he also exercises authority over all six domestic animals, and sacrificing to him is intended to secure flourishing livestock and abundant harvests. His principal function is to ensure the safety and health of grazing animals such as horses and mules.

Distribution of Horse-King Temples

Historically, horse-god temples dedicated to Lord Ma were widely built in northern China. Such temples existed in cities and even within imperial palaces. By the Ming and Qing dynasties, Horse-God Temples had spread throughout the country. In the mountainous regions of southern Shaanxi, worship of Lord Ma was particularly widespread, and Horse-King Temples appear frequently in the ritual-sacrifice sections of prefectural and county gazetteers. In Beijing, Lord Ma’s image was usually enshrined in stables and was sometimes also found at relay stations.

The Saying “Lord Ma Has Three Eyes”

“If I don’t show you what I’m capable of, you won’t even know how many eyes Lord Ma has”—this popular expression is widely circulated and reflects the mixture of awe and dependence surrounding Lord Ma. The saying “Lord Ma has three eyes” derives from the same image.

Popular custom once included keeping monkeys in stables to “ward off equine pestilence” (避马瘟). The ancients associated the monkey’s lively nature with the expulsion of evil and the promotion of equine health, and the practice is also recorded in the Qimin Yaoshu (《齐民要术》).

The custom was based on the belief that monkeys could prevent horse herds from falling ill and could protect mules and horses from epidemic disease. In the past, merchants traveling in caravans across the plateaus of southwestern China often brought a monkey with them. According to tradition, monkeys were highly sensitive to illness in mules and horses and could help people identify sick animals before an epidemic spread. In Journey to the West, the Jade Emperor appoints Sun Wukong “Bimawen” (弼马温), precisely as a homophonic play on “warding off equine pestilence” (避马瘟).

Horse worship is especially prominent among the northern nomadic peoples.

Mongols: Mongol herders frequently endowed horses with sacred qualities and regarded them as divine beings and protective spirits. Horse worship became an integral part of traditional Mongol culture. The horse is a source of pride for the Mongols, and through its sacred power they rode across the vast grasslands.

Peoples of the Altaic language family: these peoples possess a very long history of horse husbandry and developed a strong consciousness of horse veneration—worshipping the horse variously as a totem, an auspicious emblem, or a divine being.

Daur: the Daur people worship a Horse God. Their Horse God came from Mongol tradition and is called Jiyachi (吉雅其)—an industrious, warm-hearted elder deeply familiar with the nature and habits of horses.

In every Year of the Horse, auspicious expressions are especially abundant and spirited: “Success upon the Horse’s Arrival” (马到成功)—a wish that one’s goals be achieved smoothly; “One Horse Takes the Lead” (一马当先)—to lead from the front; “the Spirit of the Dragon-Horse” (龙马精神)—representing vigorous and uplifting vitality; “Ten Thousand Horses Galloping” (万马奔腾)—describing overwhelming momentum and grandeur; “Great Fortune in the Year of the Horse,” “May All Go as You Wish in the Year of the Horse,” “May the Year of the Horse Bring Blessings”; “One Horse Across the Open Plain” (一马平川)—a wish for smooth progress in one’s endeavors; and “Without Stopping the Horse’s Hooves” (马不停蹄)—a wish for sustained effort and forward movement.

In Chinese culture, the horse symbolizes strength, ascent, loyalty, and speed. The Yijing says: “Qian is the horse” (乾为马), linking the horse to the vigor of the Way of Heaven and giving it the meaning of ceaseless self-strengthening.

Thousand-li horse (千里马)—a metaphor for outstanding talent; “sweat-and-horse merit” (汗马功劳)—a metaphor for military achievement and contribution; “the old horse knows the road” (老马识途)—a symbol of experience and wisdom; “the celestial horse moves through the sky” (天马行空)—a symbol of brilliant talent and expansive imagination.

Because 马 appears in 马上, meaning “immediately,” Chinese auspicious culture developed a large body of visual and verbal blessings based on the formula “on the horse + auspicious object”: “money immediately” (马上有钱)—a yuanbao hanging from a horse’s back; “joy immediately” (马上有喜)—a bride riding on horseback; “blessings immediately” (马上有福)—a gourd hanging from a horse’s back; “immediate ennoblement” (马上封侯)—a red horse carrying a monkey, symbolizing immediate elevation to noble rank; and “wealth immediately” (马上发财)—a horse carrying yuanbao ingots.

Popular tradition regards the Year of the Horse as a year of favorable weather and good harvests. Agricultural proverbs say: “In Goat and Horse years, sow the fields widely” and “Goat and Horse years are good years for farming.” The ancients believed that the earthly branch Wu and its corresponding Horse generally foretold auspiciousness.

In contemporary usage, 马 has also been associated through wordplay with 码, as in “码上”, giving rise to modern auspicious associations with expressions such as “scan the code to pay” and “funds arrive immediately.”

Immediate ennoblement: the New Year print motif “马上封侯” is one of the most classic horse-themed auspicious compositions—a red horse carries a monkey, expressing a worldly wish for good fortune. Because 猴 (“monkey”) is a homophone of 侯 (“marquis”), “马上封侯” signifies being immediately granted noble rank and is one of the most popular auspicious New Year-print motifs.

Horses in woodblock New Year prints: at intangible-cultural-heritage New Year fairs, horse motifs are exceptionally abundant in woodblock prints. Both Fengxiang and Zhuxianzhen woodblock New Year-print traditions contain works centered on horses. A paper-cut of eight horses signifies “galloping in all directions toward a better life.”

Horses take many forms in paper-cutting—galloping steeds, peacefully reclining horses, and the lively image of “Galloping Horse Treading on a Flying Swallow” (马踏飞燕).

Manchu Irgen Gioro paper-cutting: a provincial-level intangible cultural heritage tradition of Liaoning. Inheritor Zhao Lingling created a paper-cut featuring eight horses, symbolizing galloping in all directions toward a better life.

“Galloping Horse Treading on a Flying Swallow” paper-cut: inspired by the national treasure excavated in Gansu and combined with Dunhuang cloud motifs, a new paper-cut interpretation of the famous horse was created.

Layered-fabric horse pictures: if the paper-cut horse is a line of poetry flowing across paper, the layered-fabric horse picture is an epic of the land standing upright. Born from the everyday mending practices of women in northern Shaanxi, this craft has developed into a visual art with powerful contemporary appeal.

Fengxiang clay-sculpture horse: horses in the Fengxiang clay-sculpture tradition of Shaanxi are simple, vigorous, and monumental in form. The tradition is recognized as national intangible cultural heritage. Fengxiang clay horses are brightly colored, boldly exaggerated, and strongly marked by northwestern folk aesthetics.

Hanzhou ceramic horse: the horse imagery of Hanzhou pottery is simple and powerful, a rebirth of clay in three-dimensional space.

Marbled-clay porcelain horse: horse figures in the twisted-clay porcelain tradition of Dangyangyu, Henan, possess naturally flowing textures and elegant forms.

Birch-bark horse: horse figures made from birch bark represent a distinctive folk craft of northern ethnic groups.

Daoming bamboo-woven horse: in the bamboo-weaving tradition of Daoming, Sichuan, the horse’s spirited movement is expressed through woven bamboo.

Clay-sculpture horse: intangible-cultural-heritage exhibitions display horse figures made from clay, ceramics, and many other materials. Children reproduce these traditional forms with their own hands, and every work becomes a small vessel of cultural transmission.

Horse-tail embroidery: the horse-tail embroidery (马尾绣) of the Shui people in Guizhou is a distinctive embroidery technique using actual horse-tail hair. Inheritor Shi Xiaojiao explains that a relatively large decorative work requires at least twenty or more strands of horsehair twisted together before embroidery begins, allowing even the muscular strength of the horse to be rendered in thread.

Textile horses: horse imagery in folk textile art is highly diverse. The layered-fabric horse picture originated in the everyday mending practices of women in northern Shaanxi and, through the creative renewal of later inheritors, has become a visual art with strong contemporary expressive power.

The incised-gold painting tradition practiced by Gansu arts-and-crafts master Zhang Zhaowu has a history of nearly three thousand years. His Year-of-the-Horse work was based on Gansu’s “Galloping Horse Treading on a Flying Swallow” and combined with Dunhuang cloud motifs to create a new interpretation of the celebrated image.

One’s zodiac year of birth (本命年, běnmìngnián) is commonly regarded as an inauspicious year. Folk tradition preserves the saying: “本命年犯太岁，太岁当头坐，无喜必有祸.”

Special considerations for those born in the Year of the Horse include:

Avoid dressing entirely in bright red: ordinarily, people wear red in their zodiac year to seek blessings—red underwear, red belts, and similar items symbolize warding off evil and welcoming good fortune. Yet because the Horse year, or Wu year, is regarded as excessively fiery, adding large amounts of red is thought to be “adding fire to fire”, thereby disrupting balance. Folk advice therefore recommends harmonizing rather than adding more fire: a small red cord may be used, but dressing entirely in red is discouraged.

Avoid horse-shaped ornaments: Wu represents great Fire, and placing Wu together with Wu is believed to create an uncontrollable excess of Fire, symbolizing emotional anxiety and impulsive behavior.

Avoid ornaments representing conflicting zodiac animals: Rat and Ox ornaments are said to be strictly unsuitable because they stand in opposition to the Horse.

Seek progress through stability: although the Horse symbolizes galloping forward, folk belief holds that a Horse year should be approached by “seeking progress within stability,” avoiding impulsive investment, sudden job changes, or all-or-nothing decisions.

Avoid marriage: for people born in the Year of the Horse, their zodiac year creates “Wu–Wu self-punishment” (午午自刑), regarded as a major conflict, and marriage is therefore considered unsuitable.

Within traditional zodiac marriage culture, people born under the Horse are said to be in conflict with the Rat—the Zi–Wu clash (子午冲)—in a harm relationship with the Ox—the Wu–Chou harm (午丑害)—and in a self-punishment relationship with the Horse itself—the Wu–Wu self-punishment (午午自刑).

Folk sayings include “When Horse meets Rat, tears fall like rain” and “Horse and Ox do not reach the end together.” By contrast, Horse is said to form a Three Harmonies relationship with Tiger and Dog and a Six Harmonies relationship with Goat, making such combinations comparatively favorable.

The Red Horse year is excessively fiery: 2026 is the Bingwu year, regarded as strongly dominated by Fire and therefore called the “Red Horse Year” (赤马年). Folk belief holds that excessive use of red should be avoided in such a year so as not to “pour oil on the fire.”

Avoid eating horse meat: in traditional agricultural society, the eating of horse meat was strictly restricted. Horses were central to warfare and transportation, and killing horses for food was equivalent to destroying one’s own military and transport capacity. This taboo was relatively looser among northern nomadic peoples but extremely strict in agricultural regions.

To counteract the perceived misfortune of one’s zodiac year, people born under the Horse may wear ornaments of compatible zodiac signs—Tiger, Dog, and Goat are regarded as harmonious with the Horse; wear a small red cord—while full bright-red clothing is discouraged, a small red cord is acceptable; maintain a calm and balanced mindset—the zodiac year is said to favor stillness over excessive action; and pay attention to health—because Horse years are considered fiery, particular attention is traditionally directed toward cardiovascular and cerebrovascular health.

Laudatory expressions, by far the most numerous: 马到成功—things proceed smoothly and are achieved quickly; 一马当先—to lead from the front; 万马奔腾—to describe tremendous momentum; 龙马精神—to symbolize vitality and positive energy; 马不停蹄—to continue advancing without pause; 老马识途—a metaphor for rich experience; 汗马功劳—a metaphor for military merit and contribution; 天马行空—to describe extraordinary talent and unrestrained imagination; 金戈铁马—to describe scenes of warfare; 车水马龙—to describe bustling prosperity; 马首是瞻—to follow another’s command; 伯乐相马—to recognize and discover talent; 马革裹尸—to describe heroic sacrifice; 一马平川—literally level terrain extending freely ahead, figuratively a smooth and unobstructed future.

Neutral expressions: 马马虎虎—to do something carelessly or perfunctorily; 马失前蹄—a temporary mistake or unexpected failure; 马放南山—a metaphor for peace throughout the realm; 风马牛不相及—to have absolutely no connection.

Derogatory expressions, comparatively few: 马屁精—a flatterer; 马前卒—someone who runs errands or serves another’s interests.

Numerous horse-related proverbs circulate in popular speech: “一言既出，驷马难追”—once words are spoken, even a team of four horses cannot catch them, meaning words cannot easily be taken back; “路遥知马力，日久见人心”—a long road reveals a horse’s strength, and time reveals a person’s heart; “老马识途，人老识理”—an old horse knows the road, and an old person understands reason, meaning experience is precious; “人靠衣装，马靠鞍装”—people depend on clothing and horses on saddles, meaning appearance matters; “好马不吃回头草”—a good horse does not return to graze the grass behind it, meaning a person of resolve does not turn back; “马行千里，人展宏图”—the horse travels a thousand li, while people unfold grand ambitions, symbolizing lofty aspirations and a broad future; “人善被人欺，马善被人骑”—the overly gentle person is bullied, just as the gentle horse is ridden; “牛头不对马嘴”—an ox’s head does not match a horse’s mouth, meaning an answer is irrelevant to the question.

Horse-related xiehouyu (歇后语) are humorous and lively.

Laudatory / neutral: “An old horse knows the road—traveling a familiar route with ease”, meaning rich experience; “A thousand-li horse pulling a plow—great talent put to petty use”; “A yuanbao hanging from a horse’s back—money immediately”; “A bride riding on a horse—joy immediately”; “A gourd hanging from a horse’s back—blessings immediately”; “Making a phone call from horseback—the call reaches far.”

Derogatory: “Riding a horse without a whip—depending entirely on flattery”; “A horse lifts its leg in the stable—a problem has appeared,” playing on the homophones 题 / 蹄.

Within popular zodiac personality culture, people born in the Year of the Horse are given distinctive characterizations. Positive traits: passionate and uninhibited, free-spirited, enterprising, sociable, and possessing leadership ability. Negative traits: impatient and impulsive, lacking perseverance, and inclined to lose enthusiasm quickly. A folk verse says: “午马性刚强，奔驰万里疆。一生多豪迈，富贵自名扬。”

《马马嘟嘟骑》: Ma Ma Dudu Qi is a Hunan nursery rhyme. Its general content describes a child riding a toy horse to visit the maternal grandmother’s home, then clamoring to return because the grandmother does not slaughter a chicken or goose for the child, while even the grandfather can do little about the mischievous youngster. The rhyme sings: “马马嘟嘟骑，骑到那嘎嘎去。嘎嘎不杀鸡呀，娃娃我要回去……”

《说马》: “小朋友，来说马，猜猜会说什么马？西行路上白龙马，飞跃檀溪的卢马，大唐盛世三彩马，澳大利亚迷你马。赤兔乌骓绝影马，河曲伊犁蒙古马……” This nursery rhyme strings together famous horses from history and legend and serves as a vivid introduction to horse culture for children.

《我骑白马闯天下》: “骑上大白马，驾驾驾驾驾！风在耳边飞，马蹄哒哒哒！冲出大草原，跑遍全天下！” Filled with childlike delight, the song inspires children’s longing for freedom and adventure.

The Horse in the “Song of the Twelve Zodiac Animals”: “老鼠排前头，跟着老黄牛；老虎一声吼，兔子浑身抖；龙在天上游，蛇在地上扭；马儿跑得快，羊儿慢悠悠……” The Horse appears seventh in the zodiac song and is one of the animals children encounter earliest in their introduction to the zodiac.

“Riding a bamboo horse” (骑竹马): a bamboo horse (竹马) is a traditional children’s toy and game. A thin bamboo pole and a piece of grass rope are enough to play at “riding a horse.” Children place the bamboo pole between their legs as though riding and run while shouting “jia, jia, jia,” imitating horseback movement. It is a form of traditional physical play using natural materials.

“Riding horsey” (骑马马): this is a parent-child game in which a child straddles an adult’s neck and sits on the adult’s shoulders as if riding a horse. For children, there is often no better seat than a father’s warm and powerful shoulders.

Literary record of “riding a bamboo horse”: riding bamboo horses is one of the most famous children’s games in ancient China. The Tang poet Li Bai wrote in Changgan Xing: “郎骑竹马来，绕床弄青梅。” The idiom 青梅竹马 derives from this line and describes a boy and girl who have been close since childhood.

“Little Horse Runs” game: in kindergartens, “Little Horse Runs” is a common musical game. Parents can guide children to act out scenes of riding and galloping horses in rhythm with the music.

Cloth horse: small horse dolls sewn from fabric, endearing in appearance and among the earliest media through which children become familiar with horses.

Bamboo horse: as noted above, a simple horse toy made from a bamboo pole and one of the most common traditional children’s toys.

Clay horse: brightly colored and lively clay toys commonly found at temple fairs.

Origami horse: a common kindergarten paper-folding craft used to develop children’s manual skills.

Blue-and-white porcelain horse: at traditional culture festivals, children make handicrafts such as blue-and-white porcelain horses.

Zodiac clay sculpture: horse-themed zodiac clay figures are an important medium through which children learn about zodiac culture.

The Shijing contains numerous poems about horses. More than three thousand years ago, Xiaoya: Jiri already included the line “吉日庚午，既差我马.”

Lusong: Jiong of the Shijing celebrates the fat, powerful, well-bred horses grazing on the state pastures outside the Lu capital during the reign of Duke Xi of Lu: “駉駉牡马，在坰之野”, “有骊有黄”, “有騂有騏.” That the horses were raised so strong and healthy depended entirely upon the upright character and devoted service of their keepers: “思无邪，思马斯徂.” Confucius later used the three words “思无邪” from this horse poem to summarize the central meaning of the entire Shijing: “《诗》三百，一言以蔽之：‘思无邪’.”

The Stone Drum Inscriptions (石鼓文) are the earliest surviving stone inscriptions in China. The first drum begins with: “吾车既工，吾马既同。吾车既好，吾马既阜”—praising sturdy chariots, horses moving in perfect coordination, and steeds that are strong and well fed.

In the vast sea of Chinese poetry, horse imagery is almost inexhaustible.

Tang dynasty: Li Bai, Baima Pian: “白马饰金羁，连翩西北驰。”; Du Fu, Hu Horse of Officer Fang: “胡马大宛名，锋棱瘦骨成。竹批双耳峻，风入四蹄轻。”; Li He, Horse Poems: “大漠沙如雪，燕山月似钩。何当金络脑，快走踏清秋。” Li He composed twenty-three Horse Poems, representative masterpieces of Tang poetry on horses; Han Yu, Discourse on Horses: “世有伯乐，然后有千里马。千里马常有，而伯乐不常有。”—one of the most celebrated essays on horses in the history of Chinese literature.

Song dynasty: Su Shi: “马行千里，人展宏图。”

The “Six Steeds of Zhaoling” (昭陵六骏) are stone carvings commissioned by Emperor Taizong of Tang, Li Shimin, to commemorate six warhorses that accompanied him in his campaigns. The six were 拳毛騧、什伐赤、白蹄乌、特勒骠、青骓、飒露紫. Each rendered distinguished service in Li Shimin’s military campaigns to establish the Tang dynasty. Saluzi was struck by an arrow in battle, and the general Qiu Xinggong personally pulled out the arrow and treated the horse; Quanmaogua was struck by nine arrows yet continued charging forward.

The Six Steeds of Zhaoling were designed and carved by the craftsman Yan Lide and painter Yan Liben, while Emperor Taizong himself composed four-character praises for them. These stone carvings represent the pinnacle of Tang-dynasty stone sculpture and are now regarded as national-treasure-level cultural relics.

Chinese history and literature contain countless celebrated horses: the Eight Steeds of King Mu of Zhou—divine horses said to travel ten thousand li in a day; Lü Bu’s Red Hare—“Lü Bu among men, Red Hare among horses”; Liu Bei’s Dilu—“Dilu, Dilu, today you hinder me”; Xiang Yu’s Wuzhui—the tragic mount of the Hegemon-King in the story of his farewell to Consort Yu; Qin Qiong’s Huangbiao Horse—the treasured steed of a hero of the Sui–Tang era; and Emperor Taizong’s Six Steeds of Zhaoling—meritorious warhorses of the campaigns that forged the empire.

From the jade horses and bronze foal-shaped vessels of the Shang and Zhou, to the bronze chariots and horses and painted wooden carriages of the Qin and Han, and onward to the renowned Six Steeds of Zhaoling and sancai pottery horses of the Tang, the image of the horse runs throughout the history of ancient Chinese material culture. These objects not only reveal the superb craftsmanship and changing aesthetics of different periods, but also carry the horse’s profound cultural meaning as a symbol of strength, loyalty, and spiritual identity.

The Li Bronze Foal Zun (盠青铜驹尊) in the collection of the National Museum of China was cast after a Zhou royal noble named Li (盠) received two young foals during King Mu of Zhou’s “holding the foal” ritual. The little foal still retains the innocence of youth, its clear eyes gazing curiously at the world.