Munao ZonggeOrigins of the Munao Zongge Festival

Dual Naming in Jingpo and Zaiwa

The name “Munao Zongge” itself embodies the cultural integration among different subgroups of the Jingpo people. The Jingpo people have multiple subgroups, of which the Jingpo branch and the Zaiwa branch are the two largest. “Munao” is in the Jingpo language, while “Zongge” is in the Zaiwa language. Together, they mean “everyone come and dance together.”

In the Jingpo branch, “Mu” refers to the celestial god “Mudai,” and “Nao” refers to the movements of sacrificial dance. “Munao” literally means “dance of offering sacrifice to heaven,” a religious dance activity centred on worshipping the celestial god. In the Zaiwa branch, “Zongge” means “everyone dance together,” emphasising collective participation and mass revelry.

In recent decades, the two branch names have been combined into the unified term “Munao Zongge.” This dual naming is a vivid reflection of cultural integration within the Jingpo people. From the Jingpo branch’s “heaven‑sacrificing dance” to the Zaiwa branch’s “everyone dance together,” the naming history of Munao Zongge is itself a cultural history of the Jingpo people.

Three Levels and Over Ten Types

The Jingpo people’s Munao has extremely rich levels and types. From the perspective of its development history, Munao can be divided into three levels: “Zhang Munao” (章目瑙, Sun Palace Munao), “Wu Munao” (乌目瑙, Bird Munao), and “Shenjing Munao” (神京目瑙, Human Munao).

“Zhang Munao” is the most primitive form. In Jingpo, “Zhang” means sun, referring to the dance that only the Sun God and his children could perform. “Wu Munao” is the dance that birds performed on the ground after learning it from the Sun Palace; “Wu” in Jingpo means bird. “Shenjing Munao” is the Munao that the Jingpo ancestors learned from the birds and then performed in the human world.

Beyond these three levels, there are more than ten different types of Munao, each with its specific function and purpose. For example, among the Jingpo branch, there was “Pianbudang Munao” performed before war, and “Gongran Munao” performed when a hill chief’s family divided its estates. Among the Zaiwa branch, there was “Bugunge” performed at funerals, and “Longleige” used to expel evil spirits. There is also “Su Munao” (praying for wealth and celebrating the harvest), “Badang Munao” (celebrating victory), “Dingshuan Munao” (celebrating the completion of a new house), and “Jieru Munao” (rallying troops before an expedition). In Jingpo history, expeditions, victories, bountiful harvests, weddings and funerals, and welcoming honoured guests were all occasions for holding a “Munao Zongge.”

This rich typology shows that Munao Zongge is not merely a festival but a complete system of cultural rituals. It runs through every aspect of Jingpo social life—from war to peace, from life to death, from harvest to calamity—Munao has always been the core way for the Jingpo people to express emotions, communicate with spirits, and unite the community.

Munao Zongge Festival and Munao Zongge Grand Gathering

In contemporary times, there is a subtle difference between the “Munao Zongge Festival” and the “Munao Zongge Grand Gathering.” The “Munao Zongge Festival” specifically refers to the festival activities held during the statutory festival period (the 15th day of the first lunar month). The “Munao Zongge Grand Gathering” or “Munao Zongge activities” refers more broadly to Munao Zongge events held outside the statutory festival period, which can be held as needed for cultural tourism development. Though subtle, this distinction reflects the transformation of Munao Zongge from religious ritual to cultural performance in contemporary society.

Sun Worship

The oldest source of Munao Zongge can be traced back to the Jingpo ancestors’ primitive worship of the sun. This is the deepest and most essential cultural gene of Munao Zongge.

In the primitive religious beliefs of the Jingpo people, the sun god “Mudai” is the supreme deity. Munao Zongge was originally a grand sacrificial ritual held to worship the sun god “Mudai.” The Jingpo people are a cross‑border ethnic group whose ancestors have ethnic affinity with the Di‑Qiang (氐羌) nomadic groups of the northwest. In the cold environment of the Gansu‑Qinghai Plateau, the sun not only brought light to humanity but also warmth; therefore, the Jingpo ancestors held the sun god in special reverence.

In Jingpo creation myths and heroic epics, the sun god occupies a central position. It is said that the Jingpo people originated from the Gansu‑Qinghai Plateau, where snow covered the ground all year round and the land was frozen and bitterly cold. In this extremely cold environment, the sun was the fundamental guarantee of life. The Jingpo ancestors integrated their gratitude and reverence for the sun into religious rituals, forming the tradition of Munao Zongge centred on worshipping the sun god.

The very name “Munao Zongge” contains the worship of the sun—“Mu” refers to the celestial god “Mudai,” the sun god. Munao Zongge is essentially a grand ceremony paying tribute to the sun god.

Birds Bringing the Dance

Among the many origin legends of the Jingpo people, the story of “birds learning the dance from the Sun Palace and bringing it to the human world” is the most widely spread and influential. This legend infuses Munao Zongge with its most moving cultural narrative.

#### The Sun King’s Invitation and the Mission of the Hundred Birds

Legend has it that in ancient times, only the children of the sun in the Sun Palace could perform the Munao Zongge. Once, the Sun God invited all beings in heaven and earth to a Munao Zongge grand gathering he was hosting, and the beings on earth sent all the birds to attend.

The birds, bearing this important mission, flew out of the forests and wilderness, crossed mountains and rivers, and flew over the Muzhai Shengya slopes, finally reaching the Sun Palace, where they sang and danced with the sun’s children. They were awestruck by the magnificent dance and enchanting music of the Sun Palace, and threw themselves wholeheartedly into this sacred revelry.

Another version of the legend is more specific: the nine sun brothers, who should have appeared one each day, all appeared in the sky at once and did not go back at night. All living beings on earth were scorched and could not survive. So the animals and humans jointly elected the “Kongrang” (hornbill) and “Wudong” (peacock) as envoys to plead with the Sun King. Upon arriving at the Sun Palace, they happened to catch the Sun King holding a “Zhan Munao” and were invited to participate. Their dashing bearing and melodious voices won the Sun King’s favour.

#### Bird Munao and the Three‑Level Evolution

After learning the Munao dance in the Sun Palace, the birds returned to the ground. Deeply moved by the beauty of the Munao, they decided to hold a Munao on the ground as well—this is the “Wu Munao” (Bird Munao). According to legend, the Munao held by the birds on the ground was witnessed by the Jingpo ancestor Ningguanwa (宁贯娃, also known as Ningguanwa). The Jingpo ancestors were enchanted by the birds’ melodious voices and graceful dances, and were deeply inspired, so they created the Jingpo people’s own Munao. Thus, human Munao was born.

This legend not only explains the origin of the Munao Zongge but also reveals a core concept of Jingpo culture: human culture is not created out of nothing, but is learned from nature and obtained from the gods. Birds, as messengers connecting heaven and earth, transmitted the culture of the sun god to humanity. This concept of “culture descending from heaven” endows Munao Zongge with sacredness.

The Jingpo legends about the origin of Munao form a clear three‑stage evolutionary chain: “Zhang Munao” (Sun Palace Munao) → “Wu Munao” (Bird Munao) → “Shenjing Munao” (Human Munao). “Zhang Munao” is the sacred source—the dance that only the sun god’s children could perform. “Wu Munao” is the bridge of transmission—the dance that birds brought from the Sun Palace and performed on the ground. “Shenjing Munao” is the human creation—the dance that the Jingpo ancestors learned from the birds and further developed according to their own needs.

This three‑stage structure not only explains the origin of Munao but also reveals the developmental logic of Jingpo culture: culture originates from the divine (the sun god), is transmitted through nature (birds), and is ultimately mastered and developed by humanity. Through this narrative, the Jingpo people place their own culture within the cosmic order—Munao Zongge is not only a human dance but also a divine gift and a natural offering.

#### The Hornbill and the Peacock

The influence of the bird‑transmission legend is still profoundly evident in the ritual details of Munao Zongge. During the Munao Zongge dance, the “Naoshang” (瑙双, lead dancers) all wear hats made of peacock feathers and hornbill skulls as a mark of commemoration. This is not just decoration but also a tribute to the birds that transmitted the dance.

The hornbill has special significance for the Jingpo people. In the legend, the hornbill (“Kongrang”) was chosen as the envoy to the Sun Palace. The peacock (“Wudong”) was another important bird envoy. These two birds became the most important animal totems of Munao Zongge; their images appear not only on the headdresses of the lead dancers but also in the carvings on the Munao Shidong.

Heroic Legends

Beyond the beautiful myth of birds transmitting the dance, the Jingpo people also have several origin legends of Munao Zongge associated with heroic figures. These legends infuse Munao Zongge with the spiritual connotations of struggle, courage, and national dignity.

In the Jingpo creation epic, Ningguanwa (宁贯娃, also known as Ningguanwa) is one of the most important heroic figures. He is the creator hero who separated heaven and earth, and also the son‑in‑law of the sun god. According to legend, Munao Zongge was a dance performed by the attendant birds of the goddess of fertility in the distant Sun Palace, and was later brought back to the human world by the Jingpo ancestor Ningguanwa. The sun god’s bird is thus revered as the god of dance, and the Jingpo people use dance to commemorate their ancestors’ great migration. As the son‑in‑law of the sun god, Ningguanwa had a special status as a bridge between heaven and earth. He could enter the Sun Palace, witness the sacred “Zhang Munao,” and bring it back to the human world. This narrative model of “the hero retrieves culture from the divine realm” is common in myths around the world—Prometheus bringing fire from heaven, Ningguanwa bringing dance from the Sun Palace—both are humanity’s collective imagination of cultural origins.

Another widely circulated legend links the origin of Munao Zongge to the story of the Jingpo hero Leipan (雷盼) defeating a demon king. According to legend, the Jingpo people once lived a happy life in peace. Later, a demon king appeared who survived by eating children. The Jingpo hero Leipan bravely stepped forward and fought a desperate battle with the demon king. The sun god, moved by Leipan’s courage, gave him a precious sword forged from flames. With this divine sword, Leipan ultimately defeated the demon king that devoured children. The Jingpo people held songs and dances to commemorate their ancestors’ victory—this is the origin of Munao Zongge. In this legend, Munao Zongge is not only a religious ritual to worship the sun god but also a grand celebration of victory and a commemoration of heroes. The demon king symbolises evil and disaster; the hero’s victory symbolises the power of justice and light. Thus, Munao Zongge acquired the spiritual connotation of “defeating evil and defending the homeland.”

Although the legends of Ningguanwa and Leipan have different protagonists, they share the same narrative pattern: the hero saves his people from adversity, and Munao Zongge is a commemoration and celebration of that victory. Whether Ningguanwa retrieving the dance from the Sun Palace or Leipan defeating the demon king with a divine sword, Munao Zongge is always closely linked to the narrative chain of “hero—salvation—victory—commemoration.” These two legends are not mutually exclusive but explain the cultural significance of Munao Zongge from different perspectives. The Ningguanwa legend emphasises the origin of culture (from heaven to the human world), while the Leipan legend emphasises the function of culture (exorcism and celebration). Together, the two legends constitute a complete cultural narrative of Munao Zongge—it is both sacred (from the sun god) and secular (celebrating human victory); both religious (worshipping celestial gods) and social (uniting the community).

Munao Shidong (目瑙示栋, Munao Ritual Pillars)

The Munao Shidong is the most important material carrier of Munao Zongge. The Shidong stands in the centre of the Munao dance ground and is the most sacred and revered totem in the hearts of the Jingpo people. The Shidong generally consists of six thick rectangular wooden plaques—four vertical and two horizontal—mounted on a base, painted with irregular spiral geometric patterns in red, black, and white. The two central vertical plaques are slightly taller; the left one (male) bears the sun pattern, and the right one (female) bears the moon pattern. The sun pattern is at the very top, with rays radiating in all directions, representing the Jingpo people’s migration from the Sun‑Moon Mountains of the Qinghai‑Tibet Plateau, while also symbolising the pairing of yin and yang and humanity’s dependence on the sun and moon.

Every detail of the Shidong contains rich cultural information. The spiral dance pattern below represents the migration routes of the Jingpo ancestors. Further below are the legendary patterns of the hornbill and peacock leading the dance. The two slightly shorter plaques at the sides are the ancestral male and female pillars, with the ancestral birthplace “Muzhe Shenglabeng” (木折省腊崩) painted at the top. The upper horizontal plaque bears a field pattern, and the lower one bears patterns of livestock and grains. The male and female pillars are connected by crossed knives and arrows. Beside the Shidong, a special seat for the sun god is set up, called “Zhangkenri” (章肯日) in Jingpo. The entire design of the Munao Shidong is centred on the sun—the sun at the very top, with its light shining over all. This is not just a visual design but also an expression of cosmology: the sun is the source of all things and the origin of all power.

The Munao Shidong is an encyclopaedia of the Jingpo people carved in wood—the sun, moon, migration routes, legendary animals, ancestral birthplace, fields and grains, knives and arrows—all condensed onto these six wooden plaques.

The Erecting of the Shidong Ceremony

Historically, before erecting the Munao Shidong, the entire village’s Dongsa (董萨, ordinary shamans) would chant to appease the village spirits, creating a sacrificial climax. Only after three consecutive days of sacrifice could the Munao Shidong be erected. At that moment, the entire square would burst with cheers and joy.

The ceremony of erecting the Shidong is extremely solemn. First, people offer sacrifices to the spirits to request permission to erect the Shidong; then they chant scriptures tracing the ancestors’ history; finally, amid the gaze of tens of thousands, the Shidong is erected. Once erected, it marks the official start of Munao Zongge. Knives and spears are placed beside the pillars, symbolising the people’s strong and resolute character. According to the legend that the Munao dance originated from bird dances, wooden carvings of hornbills and peacocks are placed at both ends of the pillar frame. Tall living bamboo poles are erected in front of the pillars, symbolising the ever‑green vitality of life. Above hangs a horizontal plaque painted with the Jingpo legendary place of origin, the Himalayas.

Naoshang and Naoba

In the Munao Zongge dance, there must be specialised lead dancers, the “Naoshang” (瑙双) and “Naoba” (瑙巴), leading the way, with large drum troupes and bands providing accompaniment. The Jingpo Munao Zongge dance troupe consists of the Naoshang group, the Naoba group, and the mass participants.

The Naoshang and Naoba are generally required to have good appearance, good character, and a thorough knowledge of history and traditions. Traditionally, they were strictly selected by divination, because Munao Zongge was a sacred sacrificial activity to the sun god. They have distinct origins, strict division of labour, each performing their own duties, with none dispensable. The Naoshang are the chief ritual officiants, with extremely strict requirements for the ritual dance movements. They wear hornbill headdresses, serving as the “eyes” and “soul” of the entire group, leading tens of thousands of people dancing to the same drumbeat. The Naoba assist the Naoshang, responsible for maintaining the group’s order and rhythm.

Mass Dance of Ten Thousand

The main activity of Munao Zongge is the Munao dance. When Munao Zongge is held, tens of thousands of people from within a radius of a hundred li participate, all dancing together in a grand and passionate atmosphere. Tens of thousands of people stepping to the same drumbeat creates a spectacular and profoundly powerful scene. Munao Zongge is one of the largest and most magnificent collective dances in the world.

The dance troupe is arranged in formation, with bold and orderly dance steps, and a spirited, lively rhythm. Though the dance movements are not numerous, the distinctive rhythm of the stamping step and shoulder swing is unique, making it the representative movement of Jingpo dance. Dancers are dressed in festival attire; silver ornaments sparkle like stars, and long knives wave like the wind. The dance scene of Munao Zongge has been described as a “dance of paradise.”

Instruments and Music

The music of Munao Zongge is provided by a large drum troupe and band. The drumbeat is the soul of Munao Zongge—tens of thousands of people step to the same beat; the drum is the conductor of the mass movement. In addition to drums, instruments such as gongs, cymbals, and suona horns also participate in the accompaniment. The music has a spirited and lively rhythm with strong emotional appeal. Guided by the drumbeat, the dancers form a unified rhythm and step, and the entire dance ground becomes a huge living organism, pulsating to the musical beat.