NaadamCustoms of Naadam

The word “Naadam” comes from Mongolian, with the root naad- meaning “to play,” “to have fun,” or “to engage in games.” Its most direct meaning is therefore “a gathering for entertainment” or “a festival of games,” and it can also convey the joy of a successful harvest. This seemingly simple word captures the essence of the festival with remarkable precision: Naadam is a grassland celebration centered on play and enjoyment, bringing together strength, skill, speed, competition, and communal laughter.

Within the cultural context of Naadam, “entertainment” is not merely leisure. It is closely connected with Mongolian production and daily life, military training, religious belief, and community cohesion. For a nomadic people who traditionally moved with water and pasture, survival in a demanding natural environment required physical strength, excellent riding and archery skills, and a strong spirit of cooperation. Naadam became an ideal arena in which these qualities could be displayed, tested, and celebrated, while also reinforcing collective identity.

Naadam is not a single, fixed festival but a broad cultural institution with many forms and levels. Depending on its scale, purpose, and range of participants, Naadam can be divided into several categories.

By scale: Naadam may range from small gatherings organized by a gacha (village-level community) or sum (township-level unit) to major festivals organized at banner, county, league, municipal, or even autonomous-region level. A large Naadam may include as many as 512 wrestlers and around 300 horses and last seven to ten days. A medium-sized Naadam may have 256 wrestlers and 100 to 150 horses and continue for five to seven days. A small Naadam may involve 128 or 64 wrestlers and around 30 to 50 horses, with a duration of three to five days.

By purpose: Traditionally, Naadam was organized for major occasions such as celebrating military achievements, ceremonial inspection and consecration of banners, gatherings of soldiers and civilians, meetings among banners and leagues, and ovoo worship. There are “Harvest Naadam” celebrations held for agricultural or pastoral abundance, commemorative Naadam festivals honoring historical events or heroes, Ovoo Naadam associated with sacred cairn worship, and modern “Tourism Naadam” events intended to promote travel and economic development.

This rich system of forms demonstrates that Naadam is more than a festival. It is a comprehensive social and cultural ritual institution woven into many aspects of Mongolian communal life.

Whenever Naadam approaches, herders put on new traditional clothing, mount their horses, harness their lele carts, and bring Mongolian gers together with meat, dairy foods, and other supplies from every direction. Felt tents rise across the green grasslands, gradually forming white “tent cities.” Herders living within a radius of one or two hundred li traditionally dress in festival clothing, bring elderly family members and children, load their gers and daily necessities onto carts or horses, and travel from all directions to attend. Merchants and traders from near and far also arrive and set up stalls and temporary shops.

Naadam grounds are generally selected on broad, level stretches of grassland. A central reviewing or ceremonial platform is erected, while horse-racing courses, wrestling grounds, and archery fields are marked out around it. White Mongolian gers scatter across the surrounding grassland, cooking smoke rises gently into the air, and the aroma of milk tea fills the gathering place.

Ovoo worship is one of the most important religious rituals associated with Naadam. On the day before the ceremony, the ovoo is carefully redecorated. Decorations are renewed, including the gugeli, or horsehair associated with the sacred sülde that symbolizes the spiritual essence of the ovoo, fresh branches placed on its summit, and multicolored ribbons and streamers. Branches are densely inserted into the cairn, while brightly colored strips of cloth and paper prayer flags bearing sacred texts are hung around it. Every decorative element carries symbolic meaning: branches represent life, multicolored cloth symbolizes auspiciousness, and prayer flags represent divine protection.

The Mongolian word “ovoo” literally means a “heap” or “pile.” An ovoo is generally a conical solid mound built from stones, earth, willow branches, or similar materials. Originally, ovoos served practical purposes on the open grasslands, marking roads, borders, or territorial boundaries. Across the immense and often featureless steppe, they functioned much like lighthouses at sea, helping nomadic herders orient themselves.

Within shamanic traditions based on the belief that spiritual forces inhabit the natural world, however, these structures standing between Heaven and Earth gradually acquired sacred meaning. Mongolian communities believed that mountains, forests, springs, and other features of nature possessed spiritual power, while ovoos became places where these beings might reside or manifest themselves. People therefore began making offerings at ovoos and praying for favorable weather, healthy livestock, and peace. In this way, the ovoo evolved from a practical landmark into a sacred altar and a spiritual link connecting Heaven, Earth, and humanity.

A typical Naadam-associated ovoo ritual includes decorating the ovoo, preparing offerings, the chanting of scriptures by lamas, offering dairy foods, circling the ovoo three times clockwise, invoking blessings, scattering wind-horse prayer papers, and sharing the offerings afterward.

The ceremony usually begins at dawn. Lamas recite ritual texts aloud while participants circle the ovoo three times clockwise, sprinkling fresh milk and alcohol toward it as they walk. They then bow or prostrate themselves in front of the ovoo, add stones they have brought to the cairn, and decorate it with willow branches, khadag ceremonial scarves, and colorful flags. During the ritual, participants may also scatter or offer milk liquor, dairy foods, pastries, and other items toward the ovoo. The atmosphere is solemn and reverent, with the chanting of the lamas mingling with the wind of the grasslands.

Through the solemn annual worship of the spirits associated with the ovoo, Mongolian communities preserve and promote an ethical ideal of harmony between humanity and nature, regarding respect for life, care for the ecological environment, and harmonious coexistence with the natural world as fundamental responsibilities.

Ovoo worship serves several functions. The first is prayer for blessings: participants ask for favorable weather, healthy growth of the five principal kinds of livestock, peace, and good fortune. The second is gratitude: they thank Heaven, Earth, and the spirits for protecting them through the previous year and for providing fertile grasslands and healthy animals. The third is social cohesion: herders dispersed across the wide grasslands gather through a shared ritual, reaffirming their belonging to the same community and strengthening social connections.

After the ritual, traditional horse racing, archery, and wrestling competitions begin. The solemn reverence of the sacred ceremony and the energetic excitement of athletic competition form two complementary rhythms of Naadam—stillness and movement, reverence and joy. Young men and women who have developed affection for one another may also quietly slip away to meet privately. Thus, after ovoo worship, not only competition but also romance begins.

During the opening ceremony, delegations of herders from different banners, counties, and sums enter the grounds in succession. Participants wear festive traditional clothing and ride fine horses, presenting the richness and diversity of Mongolian dress. Men wear Mongolian hats and robes with Mongolian knives at the waist, while women wear elaborate headdresses and brightly colored robes adorned with silver ornaments that ring as they move.

The flag-raising ceremony follows the entrance procession. As the national anthem plays, the national flag rises over the grasslands. Officials then deliver speeches, athlete representatives take their oaths, and Naadam is formally declared open.

Artistic performance is an indispensable part of the opening ceremony. The resonant sound of the morin khuur, or horse-head fiddle, carries across the grasslands, while Mongolian long song rises in extended, powerful melodies that seem to evoke the ancient nomadic past. Performers in ceremonial dress present traditional Mongolian dances, expressing the warmth, openness, and bold spirit associated with life on the steppe.

Bökh is the Mongolian term for wrestling. With a history of roughly two thousand years, it developed from the long nomadic experience of the Mongolian people and combines athletic competition with entertainment. Bökh is one of the most ritualized and visually distinctive events of Naadam.

Traditional wrestling attire is elaborate. Wrestlers wear loose white trousers under embroidered outer trousers decorated with animal and floral motifs. The upper garment is made from durable leather and covered with silver or brass studs; a round mirror or auspicious characters may appear on the back. Around the waist is a short apron of red, blue, and yellow silk, and the wrestler wears Mongolian boots or riding boots.

Distinguished wrestlers wear colorful collars known as jangga around the neck. The number of colored strips attached to the jangga represents victories achieved in previous competitions and therefore functions as a visible symbol of honor. Wrestlers also wear specialized equipment including a studded leather vest known as zodog, embroidered trousers, and a colored short overskirt known as shuudag or related regional forms.

Traditional Mongolian wrestling does not divide competitors by age or weight class. Participant numbers are arranged in even-numbered brackets such as 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, or 128. Competitors are paired either by respected judges or by drawing lots.

The central rule is direct: if any part of the body above the ankle touches the ground first, the wrestler loses. Bökh emphasizes skillful control rather than brute force alone, embodying the principle of overcoming strength through technique and firmness through flexibility.

Wrestlers are also expected to observe established etiquette. Before and after a match they greet their opponent and the audience. If an opponent’s clothing becomes loose or disordered, attacks are stopped until it is corrected. After throwing an opponent, the winner must help him back to his feet.

Bökh retains a strong ceremonial character. To the deep and resonant sound of the traditional Uria praise song, wrestlers enter the arena in two lines. Wearing open-chested wrestling garments and Mongolian or riding boots, they perform movements inspired by bears, lions, eagles, and other powerful animals. As they enter, they swing their arms like soaring birds before beginning the bout. Singers may chant challenge songs before competition.

The eagle-like entrance dance symbolizes strength, freedom, and victory, giving Bökh a ritual meaning that extends beyond sport.

The Mongolian people are often described as a “people on horseback,” and horse racing occupies an especially important place in Naadam. Traditional Mongolian racing includes several distinct forms.

Naadam traditionally features races alongside wrestling and archery. Horse events may include speed racing, gaited racing, and other specialized mounted competitions. Speed races test pure velocity, generally over straight courses of approximately 20, 30, or 40 kilometers, with the first horse to reach the finish declared the winner. Gaited races emphasize the steadiness, smoothness, and elegance of a horse’s movement. Other forms feature distinct traditional equestrian techniques.

Young riders often participate in the fastest races. Starting and finishing areas are decorated with bright flags, while the riders wear colorful headscarves and sashes and drive their horses forward with impressive confidence and agility.

Some races are composed entirely of young riders. On the racing ground, they wear colorful clothing and streaming ribbons, starting together at the signal of a red flag or whistle. Rankings are determined by finishing order. At banner-level Naadam competitions, champion horses may receive the honorary title of “fine steed” and be decorated with colorful ribbons and tassels. The sight of large numbers of horses racing across the grasslands is one of Naadam’s most dramatic spectacles.

Archery is among the oldest activities associated with Naadam. Traditional Mongolian archery includes both standing archery and mounted archery.

Competitions traditionally do not impose strict divisions according to age or gender. Participants provide their own horses and bows, and older forms allowed broad freedom in bow design, draw weight, arrow length, and arrow weight.

A common competition format consists of three rounds and nine arrows, with each participant shooting three arrows per round. Winners are determined by the number of successful hits. Mongolian archery includes standing, mounted, and long-distance forms, with shooting distances such as 25, 50, or 100 paces.

Traditional kharaa archery at Naadam requires traditional shooting methods, including drawing the string with the thumb, often using a thumb ring, and placing the arrow on the outer side of the bow hand. Bows are expected to use natural materials such as wood or bamboo for the body, while arrow nocks must likewise be made from natural materials rather than modern synthetic components.

In standing archery, competitors shoot from the ground after the judge gives the signal, and the best performers are determined according to accuracy. Mounted archery is even more dramatic: riders draw their bows while galloping and release arrows toward targets at speed, testing both horsemanship and precision. The combination of speed, balance, and accuracy makes mounted archery one of Naadam’s most impressive events.

Mongolian chess, often called shatar, is an important intellectual competition at Naadam. Its board resembles that of international chess, but the shapes and names of the pieces reflect Mongolian cultural traditions. It is not merely a board game but an expression of strategic thinking and intellectual skill.

Bulu is a traditional Mongolian throwing sport somewhat comparable to javelin throwing. Competitors throw a specially designed implement called a bulu over distance, and the longest throw wins. The event tests both strength and technique and remains a popular traditional competition.

Horse roping is a fundamental skill of Mongolian herders and one of the most visually exciting activities at Naadam. Riders use long roping poles while galloping to catch the necks of unbroken horses with precision, displaying remarkable horsemanship and courage. It is therefore both a technical contest and a test of nerve.

Contemporary Naadam festivals often supplement the traditional Three Manly Skills with track and field, tug-of-war, volleyball, basketball, martial arts, polo, mounted archery, mounted sword-cutting, horse-walking races, trick riding, motorcycle performances, and other modern events. While wrestling, horse racing, archery, horse roping, and Mongolian chess remain core ethnic sports, some regions also include basketball, athletics, and other contemporary competitions.

Hand-pulled mutton is one of the most characteristic Mongolian dishes. Large bone-in pieces of lamb are boiled, traditionally with relatively simple seasoning, so that the natural flavor of the meat remains prominent. Large iron pots simmer with chunks of mutton, which are lifted out and served in large bowls. Diners may eat the meat hot with chopsticks or hold it directly in their hands.

This method reflects one of the most elemental culinary traditions of nomadic life: meat boiled in water without excessive seasoning, emphasizing freshness and the original taste of the ingredients. Its straightforward preparation also reflects the open and forthright character associated with grassland culture.

At Naadam tea stalls and food tents, visitors can drink rich Mongolian milk tea. Traditionally prepared from brick tea and milk, it has a savory, full-bodied flavor. During Naadam, milk tea serves not only as a drink but also as a form of hospitality.

A wide range of other dairy products is also served, including cheese, dried milk curds, cream, fermented milk products, milk tofu, and yogurt. These foods developed directly from the pastoral way of life and remain indispensable parts of the Naadam table.

Festivals such as Naadam provide occasions for elaborate traditional Mongolian dishes, among which the whole-sheep banquet represents one of the highest forms of hospitality. An entire sheep may be roasted or boiled and presented with a golden surface and rich aroma. Sharing the whole animal is not simply a meal but a social ritual through which guests experience the generosity and hospitality of the grasslands.

During Naadam, participants wear newly prepared traditional garments. Men wear Mongolian hats, blue or red robes, belts, and Mongolian boots, presenting a confident and vigorous appearance. Women wear elaborate headdresses, brightly colored robes, and silver ornaments that ring as they move. Mongolian clothing commonly uses red, blue, white, yellow, and other strong colors, together with finely designed decorative patterns that reflect established aesthetic traditions.

As night falls, the expansive and emotionally resonant sound of the morin khuur drifts across the grasslands. The instrument is named for the carved horse head at the top of its neck and is one of the most representative musical instruments of Mongolian culture. Its timbre is broad, plaintive, and far-reaching, often evoking the immense landscapes and long history of nomadic life.

Mongolian long song is another treasure of Mongolian musical culture, distinguished by its wide vocal range and extended melodic lines. It has been recognized by UNESCO as part of the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity. During Naadam, the melodies of long song and the morin khuur blend together to create one of the most characteristic soundscapes of the grasslands.

At night, young men and women sing and dance beside bonfires. People form circles around the flames, hold hands, and perform traditional Mongolian dances. Firelight illuminates their faces while songs and laughter carry into the night.

The bonfire gathering is more than entertainment. It strengthens social bonds, allowing participants to share both the joy of the festival and their relationships with one another.